- Photo Courtesy of Sherry Courtney and Kaye Webber RRT. May increase intra-thoracic pressure. A practical guide to neonatal volume guarantee ventilation.
- My Photos library is over 300 GB, and there are no performance issues. There is no published maximum library size. As already noted, the library is made up of individual files. It's the size of those files that matters to performance, not the size of the library as a whole.
- Enabling volume boost. Open an audiobook from the app bookshelf. Tap to turn on volume boost. When volume boost is on, the icon will look like this:. Adjusting the volume boost level. Every audiobook sounds a little different, so you may need to adjust the volume boost for each one. Follow the steps below to increase or decrease the volume.
This tool can increase or decrease the volume of MP3 audio. If the volume of your MP3 music is very light, it can make the sound louder, conversely, if volume is loud, it can make the sound lighter. This tool can change and modify the volume by percentage or decibel (dB). The Set-Volume cmdlet sets or changes the file system label of an existing volume. Examples Example 1: Set the file system label PS C: Set-Volume -FileSystemLabel 'Test' -NewFileSystemLabel 'TestData' This example changes the file system label from test to TestData. Example 2: Format the volume.
The following points highlight the top five elements of Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis. The elements are: 1.Marginal Cost Equation 2.Contribution Margin 3.Profit/Volume (P/V) Ratio 4.Break Even Point 5.Margin of Safety.
Cost–Volume-Profit Analysis: Element # 1.
Marginal Cost Equation:
For the sake of convenience, the elements of costs can be written in the form of an equation as follows:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Sales = Variable Costs + Fixed Expenses ± Profit/Loss
or Sales – Variable Costs = Fixed Expenses ± Profit/Loss
or S-V = F ± P where ‘S’ stands for sales, V for variable costs, F for fixed expenses, + P for profit and – P for loss,
or S – V = C because F ± P, i.e., Fixed Expenses ± Profit/Loss = Contribution.
In order to make profit, contribution must be more than the fixed expenses and to avoid any loss, contribution must be equal to the fixed expenses.
The marginal cost equation of S — V = F ± P is very useful to find any of the four factors, i.e., S, V, F or P if three of these factors are known.
Illustration 1:
Determine the amount of fixed expenses from the following particulars:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Sales Rs. 2, 40,000: Direct Materials Rs. 80,000; Direct Labour Rs. 50,000; Variable Overheads its. 20,000 and Profit Rs. 50,000.
Cost–Volume-Profit Analysis: Element # 2.
Contribution:
Contribution is the difference between the sales and-the marginal cost of sales and it contributes towards fixed expenses and profit. Suppose selling price per unit is Rs. 15, variable cost per unit is Rs. 10, fixed cost is Rs. 1,50,000, then contribution per unit will be Rs. 5 (selling price – marginal cost i.e., Rs. 15 – Rs. 10).
Contribution for 30,000 units @ Rs. 5 is Rs. 1, 50,000 which is sufficient only to meet the fixed costs of Rs. 1,50,000 and no amount is left for profit. If output is 20,000 units, contribution is Rs. 1,00,000 (i.e., 20,000 x Rs. 5) which is not sufficient to meet fixed expenses of Rs. 1,50,000 and the result is a loss of Rs. 50,000.
An output of 40,000 units will give a contribution of Rs. 2,00,000 (i.e., 40,000 x Rs. 5) which will be sufficient to meet fixed cost of Rs. 1,50,000 and leave a profit of Rs. 50,000. Thus, contribution will first go to meet fixed expenses and then to earn profit.
Contribution can be represented as:
Contribution = Selling Price – Marginal Cost
ADVERTISEMENTS:
or Contribution = Fixed Expenses ± Profit/Loss
or Contribution – Fixed Expenses = Profit/Loss
In marginal costing, contribution is very important as it helps to find out the profitability of a product, department or division, to have better product mix, for profit planning and to maximise the profits of a concern.
Difference between Contribution and Profit:
Contribution is different from the profit which is the net gain in activity or the surplus and remains after deducting fixed expenses from the total contribution.
The following are the main differences between Contribution and Profit:
Cost–Volume-Profit Analysis: Elements # 3.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Contribution/Sales (C/S) or Profit/Volume (P/V) Ratio:
The profit/volume ratio is one of the most important ratios for studying the profitability of operations of a business and establishes the relationship between contribution and sales.
This ratio is calculated as under:
In the above example, for every Rs. 100 of sales, contribution is 33 1/3%. A sale of every Rs. 100 will bring a profit of Rs. 33 1/3 after fixed expenses are met. Comparison of P/V ratios for different products can b° made to find out which product is more profitable. Higher the P/V ratio, more will be the profit and lower the P/V ratio, lesser will be the profit. Hence, it should be the goal of every concern to increase or improve the P/V ratio.
It can be done by:
(a)Increasing the selling price per unit.
(b)Reducing direct and variable costs by effectively utilising men, machines and materials.
(c)Switching the production to more profitable products or increasing the proportion of sales of products showing a higher P/V ratio.
(d)Reducing the share of low margin products in the total sales and increasing the share of high margin products.
The P/V ratio is very useful and is used for the calculation of:
Illustration 2:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Calculate P/V Ratio from the following information:
(i)Given: Selling price Ks. 10 per unit, Variable cost per unit Rs. 6.
(ii)Given the profits and sales of two periods as under:
Cost–Volume-Profit Analysis: Elements # 4.
Break Even Point:
A business is said to break even when its total sales are equal to its total costs. It is a point of no profit no loss. At this point, contribution is equal to fixed cost. A concern which attains break even point at less number of units will definitely be better from another concern where break even point is achieved at more units of production.
The break even point can be calculated by the following formula:
Break Even Point (in units) = Total Fixed Expenses/Selling Price per Unit – Marginal Cost per Unit
or, = Total Fixed Expenses/ Contribution per Unit
Break Even Point Based on Total Sales:
Illustration 3:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
From the following particulars calculate:
(i) Contribution
(ii) P/V Ratio
(iii) Breakeven point in units and in rupees,
(iv) What will be the selling price per unit if the breakeven point is brought down to 25,000 units?
Illustration 4:
Star Ltd. manufactures and sells a standard product at fixed selling price.
The budgeted figures for the year 2007 are as under:
Calculation of Output or Sales Value at which a Desired Profit is Earned:
The formula for the calculation of output to earn a certain amount of profit is as follows:
Composite B.E.P:
A business undertaking may have different manufacturing establishments each having its own production capacity and fixed cost but producing the same product. At the same time, the concern as a whole is a unit having different establishments under the same management. Hence, the combined fixed costs have to be met by the combined BEP sales.
In this analysis, there are two approaches namely:
(i) Constant product mix approach
(ii) Variable product mix approach.
Under the first approach, the ratio in which the products of the various establishments are mixed is constant. The mix will be maintained at BEP sales also. Under the second approach, that product of the establishment would be preferred where the contribution ratio is bigger.
Illustration 5:
‘A’ Limited has two factories X and Y producing the same article whose selling price is Rs. 150 per unit.
The following are the other particulars:
Cost–Volume-Profit Analysis: Elements # 5.
Margin of Safety:
Margin of safety is the difference between the actual sales and the sales at break even point. One of the assumptions of marginal costing is that output will coincide sales, so margin of safety is also the excess production over the break even point’s output.
Sales or output beyond break even point is known as margin of safety because it gives some profit, at break even point only fixed expenses are recovered. Margin of safety can also be expressed in percentage. For example, if present sales are Rs. 4,00,000 and break even sales are Rs. 3,00,000, margin of safety is Rs. 1,00,000 i.e., Rs. 4,00,000 – Rs. 3,00,000 or 25% (i.e. Rs. 1,00,000 x 100/ Rs. 4,00,000).
Thus, formula for the calculation of margin of safety is:
Margin of Safety (M/S) = Present or Actual Sales – Break Even Sales
Margin of Safety can also be calculated with the help of the following formula:
Increase Photo Library Volume On Iphone
Margin of Safety (M/S) = Profit/P/V Ratio
Margin of Safety (in units) = Profit/Contribution per unit
Margin of safety is that sales or output which is above break even point. All fixed expenses are recovered at break even point; so fixed expenses have been excluded from the formula of margin of safety given above. Margin of safety is that sales which gives us profit after meeting fixed costs, therefore, formula of its calculation takes only profit.
If the margin of safety is large, it is an indicator of the strength of a business because with a substantial reduction in sales or production, profit shall be made. On the other hand, if the margin is small, a small reduction in sales or production will be a serious matter and lead to loss. The margin of safety at break even point is nil because actual sales volume is just equal to the break even sales.
Efforts should be made by the management to increase (or improve) the margin of safety so that more profit may be earned.
This margin can be increased by taking the following steps:
(i) Increase the level of production (sales volume) provided the capacity is available.
(ii) Increase the selling price.
(iii)Reduce the fixed or the variable costs or both.
(iv)Substitute the existing products by more profitable products.
In inter-firm comparison margin of safety may be used to indicate the relative position of firms.
Illustration 6:
A company has fixed expenses of Rs. 90,000 with sales at Rs. 3,00,000 and a profit of Rs. 60,000 during the first half year.
If in the next half year, the company suffered a loss of Rs. 30,000, Calculate:
(a) The P/V ratio, breakeven point and margin of safety for the first half year.
(b) Expected sales volume for next half year assuming that selling price and fixed expenses remain unchanged.
(c) The breakeven point and margin of safety for the whole year.
Illustration 7:
Assuming that the cost structure and selling prices remain the same in periods I and II, find out:
(a) Profit Volume Ratio;
(b) Fixed Cost;
(c) Break Even Point for Sales ;
(d) Profit when Sales are of Rs. 1,00,000 ;
(e) Sales required to earn a Profit of Rs. 20,000 ;
(f) Margin of Safety at a Profit of Rs. 15,000 ; and
(g) Variable Cost in Period II
Illustration 8:
E Ltd. manufacturers and sells a single product X whose price is Rs. 40 per unit and variable cost is Rs. 16 per unit. If the fixed costs for the year are Rs. 4,80,000 and the annual sales are at 60% Margin of Safety, calculate the rate of return on sales, assuming an income tax level of 35%.
Illustration 9:
(a) Give the following, calculate P/V ratio and profit when sales are Rs. 20,000:
(i) Fixed cost Rs. 4,000
(ii)Break-even-point Rs. 10,000.
(b) Given the following, find the margin of safety sales:
(i) Profit earned Rs. 24,000
(ii) Selling price per unit Rs. 10
(iii)Marginal cost per unit Rs. 7.
(c) From the following data, find out (i) sales ; and (ii) new break-even sales, if selling price is reduced by 10%:
Fixed cost Rs. 4,000; Break-even sales Rs. 20,000 ; Profit Rs. 1,000 and Selling price per unit Rs. 20.
(d)From the following data, compute break-even sales and margin of safety: Sales Rs. 10,00,000 ; Fixed cost Rs. 3,00,000 ; and Profit Rs. 2,00,000.
(e)From the following data, calculate break-even point (BEP):
Selling price per unit Rs. 20 ; Variable cost per unit Rs. 15 and Fixed overheads Rs. 20,000. If sales are 20% above BEP, determine the net profit.
(f)The fixed costs amount to Rs. 1,50,000 and the percentage of variable costs to sales is given to be 66 ⅔%. If 100% capacity sales at normal are Rs. 9,00,000, find out the break even point and the percentage sales when it occurs. Determine profit at 80% capacity sales.
Illustration 10:
(a) X Ltd. has earned contribution of Rs. 2,00,000 and net profit of Rs 1 50 000 on sales of Rs. 8,00,000. What is its margin of safety?
(b) If margin of safety is Rs. 2,40,000 (40% of sales) and P/V Ratio is 30% of AB Ltd., calculate its
(i) Break even sales and
(ii) Amount of profit on sales of Rs. 9,00,000.
(c) A company sells its product at Rs. 15 per unit. In a period, if it produces and sells 8 000 units it incurs a loss of Rs. 5 per unit. If the volume is raised to 20,000 units, it earns a profit of Rs 4’per unit. Calculate break-even point both in terms of rupees as well as in units.
(d) A company earned a profit of Rs. 30,000 during the year 2006-07. If the marginal cost and selling price of a product are Rs. 8 and Rs. 10 per unit respectively, find out the amount of Margin of Safety’
(e) The profit volume (P/V) ratio of B B & Co. dealing in precision instruments is 50 A and the margin of safety is 40%.
You are required to work out the break-even point and the net profit if the sale volume is Rs. 50 lakhs.
(f) Comment on the economic soundness of the following firms:
Comment:
Firm A is more sound as compared to Firm B because it gives excess profit of Rs. 20,000 (i.e., Rs. 50,000 – Rs. 30,000). It is because of higher P/V ratio of 50%. Higher the P/V ratio, better it is. Firm A will start earning profit @ 50% on sales after B.E.P. whereas firm B will earn profit @ 30% on sales in excess of break even sales.
Increase Photo Library Volume On Laptop
(g) Suppose selling price per unit is Re. 1 and units sold are 100.
Illustration 11:
A company has annual fixed costs of Rs. 14,00,000.
In 2008 sales amounted to Rs. 60,00,000 as compared with Rs. 45,00,000 in 2007 and profit in 2008 was Rs. 4,20,000 higher than in 2007:
(i) At what level of sales does the company break-even?
(ii) Determine profit or loss on a present sales volume of Rs. 80,00,000.
(iii) If there is reduction in selling price in 2007 by 10% and the company desires to earn the same profit as in 2008, what would be the required sales volume?
This has to be maintained.
In 2007, the sales volume and contribution consequent upon 10% reduction in price are:
Illustration 12:
From the following data, calculate:
(i)Break even point expressed in amount of sales in rupees.
(ii) Number of units that must be sold to earn a profit of Rs. 1,20,000 per year,
(iii) How many units are to be sold to earn a net income of 15% of sales?
Illustration 13:
An analysis of cost of Sullivan Manufacturing Company led to the following information:
You are required to determine:
(i) The break-even sales volume,
(ii)The profit at the budgeted sales volume,
(iii)The profit, if actual sales—
(a)Drop by 10 per cent.
(b)Increase by 5 per cent from budgeted sales.
Effect of Certain Changes on P/V Ratio, Break Even Point and Margin of Safety:
In order to see the effect of certain changes on P/V ratio, breakeven point and margin of safety, the following data is assumed:
From the above it is clear that if:
(i) There is increase in selling price per unit it will increase the P/V ratio reduce the break even point and increase the margin of safety. If there is reduction in price per unit, it will decrease the P/V ratio, increase the break even pint and shorten the margin of safety.
(ii)There is increase in variable cost per unit, it will decrease the P/V ratio, increase the break even point and shorten the margin of safety.
(iii)There is increase in total fixed costs, there will no effect on P/V ratio, increase the break even point and shorten the margin of safety.
(iv)There is increase in no. of units sold, it will have no effect on P/V ratio and break even point but will Increase the margin of safety.
Illustration 14:
Celebrity Photo Library
Your company manufacturing a single product sells it at a price of Rs. 80 per unit. The variable cost per unit is Rs. 48 and the annual fixed cost amounts to Rs. 3.6 lakhs.
Based on these data, you are required to work out the following:
(i) Present P/V ratio and break-even sales.
(ii) Increase in the volume of sales required if the profit is sought to be increased by Rs. 36 lakhs.
(iii) Percentage increase/decrease in sales volume:
a. To offset an increase of Rs. 4 per unit in variable cost; and
b. An increase in selling price by 10% without affecting the quantum of existing profit.
Solution:
(i) P/V Ratio = Contribution per unit/Selling Price per unit x 100 = Rs. 80 – RS. 48/Rs. 80 x 100 = 40
Break Even Sales = Fixed Cost/P/V Ratio = Rs. 18 lakhs/40% = Rs. 45 lakhs
(ii) Increase in Volume of Sales required = Increase in Contribution/40% = Rs. 3.6 lakhs/40% = Rs. 9 lakhs.
Illustration 15:
Supreme Ltd. which manufactures the component EXCEL, has achieved a turnover of Rs. 6,00,000 for the calendar year 2007. The manager of the company has informed that the company has worked at a profit ratio of 25% and margin of safety of 20%.
But he feels due to severe competition, the selling price is to be reduced to maintain the same volume of sales for the year 2008. He does not expect any change in variable costs. He expects that due to cost reduction programme, the profit volume ratio and margin of safety will be 20% and 30% respectively and considerable saving in fixed cost for 2008.
Even if the company prefers to shut down its operations for 2008, it expects to incur a minimum fixed cost of Rs. 60,000.
You are expected to:
(i) Present the comparative statement for the year 2007 and 2008 showing under marginal costing.
(ii) What will minimum sales be squired, if it decides to shut down its unit in 2008?